{"id":507,"date":"2020-04-23T07:46:38","date_gmt":"2020-04-23T07:46:38","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/localhost\/ecosystems\/concepts-of-ecosystems-and-conservation\/"},"modified":"2020-04-23T07:46:38","modified_gmt":"2020-04-23T07:46:38","slug":"concepts-of-ecosystems-and-conservation","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.cfwt.sua.ac.tz\/ecosystems\/news\/concepts-of-ecosystems-and-conservation","title":{"rendered":"Concepts of ecosystems and conservation"},"content":{"rendered":"<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">The term &#8220;ecosystem&#8221; was first used in 1935 in a publication by British ecologist Arthur Tansley. Tansley devised the concept to draw attention to the importance of transfers of materials between organisms and their environment. Tansley later defined the spatial extent of&nbsp;ecosystems&nbsp;using the term &#8220;ecotope&#8221;<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">What is the concept of ecosystem?<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">In biology, an&nbsp;ecosystem&nbsp;is a community of organisms and their physical environment. The notion of an&nbsp;ecosystem&nbsp;recognizes the many ways that an organism interacts with and depends on various parts of its environment. The idea of an&nbsp;ecosystem&nbsp;has been adopted for social and economic systems.<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"_VnqCYKXhCZK78gLTypCgDg23\" class=\"mWyH1d FXMOpb\" style=\"text-align: justify;\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\" aria-controls=\"_VnqCYKXhCZK78gLTypCgDg22\" aria-expanded=\"true\">\n<div class=\"cbphWd\" data-kt=\"KjC788Ly-8yV5Rv697eh4cXMuVedw7ryne_cyowBgtui557gh_X9AdGLrN6-3MD34QE\" data-hveid=\"CAsQAw\" data-ved=\"2ahUKEwil5NT57pPwAhWSnVwKHVMlBOQQuk4oAHoECAsQAw\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">What is a simple definition of ecosystem?<\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"_VnqCYKXhCZK78gLTypCgDg22\" class=\"gy6Qzb oNjtBb V1sL5c\" style=\"text-align: justify;\" aria-labelledby=\"_VnqCYKXhCZK78gLTypCgDg23\">\n<div>\n<div id=\"_VnqCYKXhCZK78gLTypCgDg24\" class=\"y8URue\" data-hveid=\"CAsQBA\" data-ved=\"2ahUKEwil5NT57pPwAhWSnVwKHVMlBOQQu04oAXoECAsQBA\">\n<div id=\"6\">\n<div class=\"wDYxhc\" data-md=\"61\">\n<div class=\"LGOjhe\" role=\"heading\" data-attrid=\"wa:\/description\" aria-level=\"3\" data-hveid=\"CAkQAA\"><span class=\"ILfuVd NA6bn\" style=\"font-size: 14pt;\"><span class=\"hgKElc\">The simplest&nbsp;definition&nbsp;of an&nbsp;ecosystem&nbsp;is that it is a community or group of living organisms that live in and interact with each other in a specific environment.<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">What are the 4 types of ecosystems?<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">The&nbsp;four ecosystem types&nbsp;are classifications known as artificial, terrestrial, lentic and lotic.&nbsp;Ecosystems&nbsp;are parts of biomes, which are climatic systems of life and organisms. In the biome&#8217;s&nbsp;ecosystems, there are living and nonliving environmental factors known as biotic and abiotic.<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"_K3mCYM61M6KV1fAPmdSt6Aw7\" class=\"mWyH1d FXMOpb\" style=\"text-align: justify;\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\" aria-controls=\"_K3mCYM61M6KV1fAPmdSt6Aw6\" aria-expanded=\"true\">\n<div class=\"cbphWd\" data-kt=\"KjDp6_28m7KSoqkBm6bvs9CrgYjGAbqVqpSi67XWqAGuiOr2sKnD01fJ2a3Ns4qs_WE\" data-hveid=\"CAkQBQ\" data-ved=\"2ahUKEwiO97Tr7ZPwAhWiShUIHRlqC80Quk4oAHoECAkQBQ\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">What are the structure and functions of ecosystem?<\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"_K3mCYM61M6KV1fAPmdSt6Aw6\" class=\"gy6Qzb oNjtBb V1sL5c\" style=\"text-align: justify;\" aria-labelledby=\"_K3mCYM61M6KV1fAPmdSt6Aw7\">\n<div>\n<div class=\"y8URue\" data-hveid=\"CAkQBg\" data-ved=\"2ahUKEwiO97Tr7ZPwAhWiShUIHRlqC80Qu04oAXoECAkQBg\">\n<div class=\"wDYxhc\" data-md=\"61\">\n<div class=\"LGOjhe\" role=\"heading\" data-attrid=\"wa:\/description\" aria-level=\"3\" data-hveid=\"CAIQAA\"><span class=\"ILfuVd NA6bn\" style=\"font-size: 14pt;\"><span class=\"hgKElc\">The&nbsp;structure&nbsp;is related to species diversity. According to E.P.Odum, the&nbsp;ecosystem&nbsp;is the&nbsp;basic functional&nbsp;unit of organism and their environment interacting with each other. The&nbsp;function of ecosystem&nbsp;is related to the energy flow, decomposition, nutrient cycling and&nbsp;major&nbsp;biomes.<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n<div><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\"><\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"_0XiCYK_NJcjGgQaIoqjIDA26\" class=\"mWyH1d FXMOpb\" style=\"text-align: justify;\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\" aria-controls=\"_0XiCYK_NJcjGgQaIoqjIDA25\" aria-expanded=\"true\">\n<div class=\"cbphWd\" data-kt=\"KjHXjtOTmPuSvdkBsYTQroDwlPxK9Jzm4rfLmqnIAcLZ_tzkzqvx6wGmydKe8eGI5ecB\" data-hveid=\"CA4QBw\" data-ved=\"2ahUKEwjv-bHA7ZPwAhVIY8AKHQgRCskQuk4oAHoECA4QBw\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">What are the 5 basic components of an ecosystem?<\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"_0XiCYK_NJcjGgQaIoqjIDA25\" class=\"gy6Qzb oNjtBb V1sL5c\" style=\"text-align: justify;\" aria-labelledby=\"_0XiCYK_NJcjGgQaIoqjIDA26\">\n<div>\n<div id=\"_0XiCYK_NJcjGgQaIoqjIDA27\" class=\"y8URue\" data-hveid=\"CA4QCA\" data-ved=\"2ahUKEwjv-bHA7ZPwAhVIY8AKHQgRCskQu04oAXoECA4QCA\">\n<div id=\"11\">\n<div class=\"wDYxhc\" data-md=\"83\">\n<div class=\"di3YZe\">\n<div class=\"co8aDb XcVN5d\" role=\"heading\" aria-level=\"3\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Terms in this set (11)<\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"RqBzHd\">\n<ul class=\"i8Z77e\">\n<li class=\"TrT0Xe\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">energy,&nbsp;minerals,&nbsp;water,&nbsp;oxygen, and living things. Five components that an ecosystem must contain to survive.<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"TrT0Xe\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">ecosystem. composed of many interconnected&nbsp;parts&nbsp;that interact in complex ways.<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"TrT0Xe\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Biotic factor. &#8230;<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"TrT0Xe\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Organisms. &#8230;<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"TrT0Xe\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">abiotic factor examples. &#8230;<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"TrT0Xe\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Population. &#8230;<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"TrT0Xe\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Community. &#8230;<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"TrT0Xe\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">habitat.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\"><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">What are the different types of ecosystems?&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n<div class=\"co8aDb XcVN5d\" role=\"heading\" aria-level=\"3\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">The different types of the ecosystem include:<\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"RqBzHd\">\n<ul class=\"i8Z77e\">\n<li class=\"TrT0Xe\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Terrestrial ecosystem.<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"TrT0Xe\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Forest ecosystem.<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"TrT0Xe\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Grassland ecosystem.<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"TrT0Xe\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Desert ecosystem.<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"TrT0Xe\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Tundra&nbsp;ecosystem.<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"TrT0Xe\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Freshwater ecosystem.<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"TrT0Xe\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Marine ecosystem<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">&nbsp;<span style=\"font-style: italic;\">What is importance of ecosystem?<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"_FnmCYLvgKZbT1fAPmrKViAs3\" class=\"gy6Qzb oNjtBb V1sL5c\" style=\"text-align: justify;\" aria-labelledby=\"_FnmCYLvgKZbT1fAPmrKViAs4\">\n<div class=\"y8URue\" data-hveid=\"CAUQAg\" data-ved=\"2ahUKEwi7w6nh7ZPwAhWWaRUIHRpZBbEQu04oAXoECAUQAg\">\n<div class=\"wDYxhc\" data-md=\"61\">\n<div class=\"LGOjhe\" role=\"heading\" data-attrid=\"wa:\/description\" aria-level=\"3\" data-hveid=\"CAMQAA\"><span class=\"ILfuVd NA6bn\" style=\"font-size: 14pt;\"><span class=\"hgKElc\">Importance of Ecosystem:<\/p>\n<p>It provides habitat to wild plants and animals. It promotes various food chains and food webs. It controls essential ecological processes and promotes lives. Involved in the recycling of&nbsp;nutrients&nbsp;between biotic and abiotic components.<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n<div><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\"><\/span><\/div>\n<div><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">What are the types of ecosystem services?<\/span><\/div>\n<div><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), a major UN-sponsored effort to analyze the impact of human actions on ecosystems and human well-being, identified four major categories of ecosystem services: provisioning,&nbsp;regulating, cultural and supporting services.<\/span><\/div>\n<div><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\"><\/span><\/div>\n<div>\n<div id=\"_MYGCYMTzGobBgQabwpLwCQ22\" class=\"mWyH1d FXMOpb\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\" aria-controls=\"_MYGCYMTzGobBgQabwpLwCQ21\" aria-expanded=\"true\">\n<div class=\"cbphWd\" data-kt=\"KjD9qZT7uu6CgNUB8u_zh72c0L2-AdD2ps3q3ZbTXqad4drA7fjNB8f_v_jqr4GStgE\" data-hveid=\"CAsQAw\" data-ved=\"2ahUKEwiE0NK-9ZPwAhWGYMAKHRuhBJ4Quk4oAHoECAsQAw\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Why is ecosystem conservation important?<\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"_MYGCYMTzGobBgQabwpLwCQ21\" class=\"gy6Qzb oNjtBb V1sL5c\" aria-labelledby=\"_MYGCYMTzGobBgQabwpLwCQ22\">\n<div id=\"_MYGCYMTzGobBgQabwpLwCQ23\" class=\"y8URue\" data-hveid=\"CAsQBA\" data-ved=\"2ahUKEwiE0NK-9ZPwAhWGYMAKHRuhBJ4Qu04oAXoECAsQBA\">\n<div id=\"7\">\n<div class=\"wDYxhc\" data-md=\"61\">\n<div class=\"LGOjhe\" role=\"heading\" data-attrid=\"wa:\/description\" aria-level=\"3\" data-hveid=\"CA8QAA\"><span class=\"ILfuVd NA6bn\" style=\"font-size: 14pt;\"><span class=\"hgKElc\">It refers not just to species but also to&nbsp;ecosystems&nbsp;and differences in genes within a single species. Healthy&nbsp;ecosystems&nbsp;clean our water, purify our air, maintain our soil, regulate the climate, recycle nutrients and provide us with food. They provide raw materials and resources for medicines and other purposes.<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n<div><\/div>\n<div>\n<div id=\"_MYGCYMTzGobBgQabwpLwCQ34\" class=\"mWyH1d FXMOpb\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\" aria-controls=\"_MYGCYMTzGobBgQabwpLwCQ33\" aria-expanded=\"true\">\n<div class=\"cbphWd\" data-kt=\"KjCIlJvtybK9m_QBvYLg_Z7qzMAo_96Rj5WX-v2UAbmi4IHB67z4Ob-bkMWT8sDgvwE\" data-hveid=\"CAsQDw\" data-ved=\"2ahUKEwiE0NK-9ZPwAhWGYMAKHRuhBJ4Quk4oAHoECAsQDw\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">How can we preserve and conserve our ecosystem?<\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"_MYGCYMTzGobBgQabwpLwCQ33\" class=\"gy6Qzb oNjtBb V1sL5c\" aria-labelledby=\"_MYGCYMTzGobBgQabwpLwCQ34\">\n<div id=\"_MYGCYMTzGobBgQabwpLwCQ35\" class=\"y8URue\" data-hveid=\"CAsQEA\" data-ved=\"2ahUKEwiE0NK-9ZPwAhWGYMAKHRuhBJ4Qu04oAXoECAsQEA\">\n<div id=\"16\">\n<div class=\"wDYxhc\" data-md=\"83\">\n<div class=\"di3YZe\">\n<div class=\"RqBzHd\">\n<ol class=\"X5LH0c\">\n<li class=\"TrT0Xe\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Reduce, reuse, and recycle. Cut down on what you throw away. &#8230;<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"TrT0Xe\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Volunteer. Volunteer for cleanups in your community. &#8230;<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"TrT0Xe\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Educate.<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"TrT0Xe\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Conserve&nbsp;water<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"TrT0Xe\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Choose sustainable.<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"TrT0Xe\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Shop wisely.<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"TrT0Xe\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Use long-lasting light bulbs.<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"TrT0Xe\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Plant a tree.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\"><\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"_RIGCYIfpAZTFxgPt87CYAQ4\" class=\"mWyH1d FXMOpb\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\" aria-controls=\"_RIGCYIfpAZTFxgPt87CYAQ3\" aria-expanded=\"true\">\n<div class=\"cbphWd\" data-kt=\"KjDFhJLP_biAuJ4Bo9L28437n7eFAaqJqcjs9pie3AHNp7qSoOn-xmTkhpzomJDK7zE\" data-hveid=\"CAUQAQ\" data-ved=\"2ahUKEwiHm8HH9ZPwAhWUonEKHe05DBMQuk4oAHoECAUQAQ\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Why do we need conservation?<\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"_RIGCYIfpAZTFxgPt87CYAQ3\" class=\"gy6Qzb oNjtBb V1sL5c\" aria-labelledby=\"_RIGCYIfpAZTFxgPt87CYAQ4\">\n<div>\n<div class=\"y8URue\" data-hveid=\"CAUQAg\" data-ved=\"2ahUKEwiHm8HH9ZPwAhWUonEKHe05DBMQu04oAXoECAUQAg\">\n<div class=\"wDYxhc\" data-md=\"61\">\n<div class=\"LGOjhe\" role=\"heading\" data-attrid=\"wa:\/description\" aria-level=\"3\" data-hveid=\"CAMQAA\"><span class=\"ILfuVd NA6bn\" style=\"font-size: 14pt;\"><span class=\"hgKElc\">The most obvious reason for&nbsp;conservation is&nbsp;to protect wildlife and promote biodiversity. Protecting wildlife and preserving it for future generations also means that the animals&nbsp;we&nbsp;love don&#8217;t become a distant memory. So the preservation of these habitats helps to prevent the entire ecosystem being harmed.<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n<div>&nbsp;<\/div>\n<div>\n<div id=\"_6oGCYMe3Or-q1fAP25CigA85\" class=\"mWyH1d FXMOpb\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\" aria-controls=\"_6oGCYMe3Or-q1fAP25CigA84\" aria-expanded=\"true\">\n<div class=\"cbphWd\" data-kt=\"KjDumt3XraODoqsBy46Sjoz42KQ64MSBjKzJwu2JAc75v-rElqbBAvyIsdvBt6KSrAE\" data-hveid=\"CAcQAQ\" data-ved=\"2ahUKEwjH1I2X9pPwAhU_VRUIHVuICPAQuk4oAHoECAcQAQ\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">What is the importance of forest conservation?<\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"_6oGCYMe3Or-q1fAP25CigA84\" class=\"gy6Qzb oNjtBb V1sL5c\" aria-labelledby=\"_6oGCYMe3Or-q1fAP25CigA85\">\n<div>\n<div class=\"y8URue\" data-hveid=\"CAcQAg\" data-ved=\"2ahUKEwjH1I2X9pPwAhU_VRUIHVuICPAQu04oAXoECAcQAg\">\n<div class=\"wDYxhc\" data-md=\"61\">\n<div class=\"LGOjhe\" role=\"heading\" data-attrid=\"wa:\/description\" aria-level=\"3\" data-hveid=\"CAQQAA\"><span class=\"ILfuVd NA6bn\" style=\"font-size: 14pt;\"><span class=\"hgKElc\">The importance of forests cannot be underestimated. We depend on forests for our survival, from the&nbsp;air&nbsp;we breathe to the wood we use. Besides providing habitats for animals and livelihoods for humans, forests also offer watershed protection, prevent soil erosion and mitigate&nbsp;climate&nbsp;change.<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<h1 class=\"single-lessons-title\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Ecosystem service concept and classification systems<\/span><\/h1>\n<section class=\"entry fix\">\n<div id=\"concept\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.cfwt.sua.ac.tz\/ecosystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/04\/guidebook_ecosystem_services_vivagrass-compressed.pdf\">To download the whole theory content (PDF)<\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<div><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\"><\/span><\/p>\n<div><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\"><span lang=\"EN-GB\">Ecosystem service concept<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Ecosystems have potential to supply a range of services that are of fundamental importance to human well-being, health, livelihoods, and survival (Costanza et al., 1997; Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA), 2005; TEEB Synthesis, 2010). Different ways of defining ecosystem service have been developed so far \u2013 they can be described as the benefits that people obtain from ecosystems (MEA, 2005) or as the direct and indirect contributions of ecosystems to human well-being (TEEB, 2010). More recent publications define the&nbsp;ecosystem services (ES) as contributions of ecosystem structure and function (in combination with other inputs) to human well-being&nbsp;(Burkhard et al., 2012; Burkhard B. &amp; Maes J. Eds., 2017).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Ecosystem cannot provide any benefits to people without the presence of people (human capital), their communities (social capital), and their built environment (built capital). Thus ecosystem services should be perceived as a contribution of the natural capital to human well-being, which forms only by interaction with human, social and built capital (Fig. 1.1.).<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_7446\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\"><a class=\"fancybox image\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cfwt.sua.ac.tz\/ecosystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/04\/chapter1_fig1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-7446 size-full wp-image-491\" src=\"https:\/\/www.cfwt.sua.ac.tz\/ecosystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/04\/chapter1_fig1-791x576.jpg\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vivagrass.eu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/07\/chapter1_fig1-791x576.jpg 791w, &lt;a href=\" alt=\"\" width=\"550\" height=\"401\" wp-content=\"\" chapter1_fig1-768x560=\"\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Figure 1.1. Interactions between built, social, human and natural capital required to produce human well-being (Source: Costanza et al., 2014).<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Ecosystem services can be perceived also as an interface between people and nature, which is illustrated by so called \u2018cascade model\u2019 (Haines-Young and Potschin, 2010; Potschin and Haines-Young, 2016;&nbsp; Burkhard and Maes (Eds.), 2017). This model describes the pathway of causal interrelations between ecosystem at one end and the human well-being at another (Fig. 1.2). The ecosystem within this model is characterized by its biophysical structures and processes. The&nbsp;biophysical structure, in a more simple way, can be labelled as a habitat type (e.g. woodland, wetland, grassland etc.), while&nbsp;processesrefers to dynamics and interactions forming the ecological system (e.g. primary production). The&nbsp;ecosystem functions, in the context of the cascade model, are understood as the characteristics or behaviours of the ecosystem that underpins its capacity to deliver an ecosystem service (e.g. ability of the woodland or grassland to generate a standing stock of biomass). Those elements and features, which are behind the ecosystem capacity to deliver services, are sometimes called \u2018supporting\u2019 or \u2018intermediate\u2019 services, while the&nbsp;\u2018final\u2019 ecosystem service&nbsp;is what we actually can harvest (e.g. hey, timber) or gain from ecosystem (e.g. flood protection, beautiful landscape etc.). The \u2018final\u2019 services directly contribute to human well-being through the&nbsp;benefits&nbsp;that they support (e.g. health and safety). People are used to assign values to the benefits, therefore they are also referred as \u2018goods\u2019 and \u2018products\u2019.&nbsp;The&nbsp;value&nbsp;can be expressed in many different ways \u2013 using monetary as well as moral, aesthetic or other qualitative criteria.<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_7447\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\"><a class=\"fancybox image\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cfwt.sua.ac.tz\/ecosystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/04\/chapter1_fig2.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-7447 size-full wp-image-495\" src=\"https:\/\/www.cfwt.sua.ac.tz\/ecosystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/04\/chapter1_fig2-791x385.jpg\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vivagrass.eu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/07\/chapter1_fig2-791x385.jpg 791w, &lt;a href=\" alt=\"\" width=\"550\" height=\"268\" wp-content=\"\" chapter1_fig2-768x374=\"\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Figure 1.2. The cascade model (Source: Potschin and Haines-Young, 2016).<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">The capacity of the ecosystem to supply services for human well-being directly depends on the&nbsp;ecosystem condition&nbsp;(its structure and processes). While increasing the pressure on ecosystem or by changing the land use type (and thus fundamentally impacting or destroying the previous ecosystem), people influence the ecosystem service supply or trade-offs between different services. For example, by draining a wetland people can gain arable land and thus valuable food products, but at the same time lose such services as flood protection, natural habitats and species diversity as well as possibilities for nature tourism. In counting together all the benefits (in monetary or other valuation system), the value of wetland most probably would be much higher that the value of arable land.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Biodiversity&nbsp;has essential role in supply of the ecosystem services although this interrelation not always is so straightforward. Mostly it is associated with so called \u2018supporting or intermediate services\u2019, although few studies demonstrated a direct linear relation between&nbsp;species diversity&nbsp;and ecosystem productivity, biomass production, nutrient cycling etc. (Haines-Young and Potschin, 2010). For example there is experimental evidence that maintaining high levels of plant species diversity increases grassland productivity (e.g. Fagan et al., 2008).&nbsp; The productivity is an ecosystem function that underpins a range of ecosystem services (e.g. biomass production, soil formation and erosion control). However, it is not only the species richness, which supports the ecosystem service supply \u2013 there are also other ecosystem properties, which plays significant role, e.g. presence of particular species or species groups with particular features, that have certain function in ecosystem or its performance. For example, the ability of vegetation to store nutrients (used in establishing buffer stripes along water bodies) might depend on presence of species with the particular feature and their abundance in relation to the level of nutrients in the system. Such features of species are called&nbsp;functional traits.&nbsp;&nbsp;There is an agreement among researchers that functional diversity, formed by type, range and relative abundance of functional traits in a community, can have important consequence for ecosystem processes (De Bello et al., 2008). Ecosystems, where&nbsp;functional groups&nbsp;(i.e. groups of species with similar functions) are formed by ecologically similar species with different reactions on environmental pressures, are more resistant to adverse effects and thus can continue to supply services essential for human well-being.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">The interrelation between biodiversity, ecosystem and socio-economic system via flows of ecosystem services and drivers of change is reflected also within the conceptual framework for EU and national ecosystem assessment developed by MAES initiative under Action 5 of the EU Biodiversity strategy (Maes et al., 2016) (Fig. 1.3).<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_7448\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\"><a class=\"fancybox image\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cfwt.sua.ac.tz\/ecosystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/04\/chapter1_fig3.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-7448 size-full wp-image-497\" src=\"https:\/\/www.cfwt.sua.ac.tz\/ecosystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/04\/chapter1_fig3-791x463.jpg\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vivagrass.eu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/07\/chapter1_fig3-791x463.jpg 791w, &lt;a href=\" alt=\"\" width=\"550\" height=\"322\" wp-content=\"\" chapter1_fig3-768x449=\"\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Figure 1.3. Conceptual framework for ecosystem assessment (Source: Maes et al., 2016)<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p><span lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Based on changes of the values or preferences\/demand for the benefits provided by ecosystem, people make judgements about the kinds of interventions in the ecosystem either by protecting ecosystem or enhancing the supply of ecosystem service. Therefore knowledge on ecosystem service supply and their links to biodiversity as well as limits of ecological functioning and how external pressures may impact on ecological structures and processes is crucial when making decisions on land use or development projects, which are impacting ecosystem condition.<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"policy\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\"><\/span><\/div>\n<h2><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">History of the concept development and its role in policy making<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">The ecosystem service concept is relatively new. It appeared on research agenda during the last decades of the 20<sup>th<\/sup>century, when the first publication on this topic were issued. An important milestone in ecosystem service evaluation was de Groot\u2019s publication \u201cFunctions of Nature\u201d (1992), followed by Costanza et al. (1997) and Daily (1997), who further developed and promoted the concept in a global context. However, the idea was brought up already in 1970 within the Study of Critical Environmental Problems (SCEP), when a concept of \u2018environmental services\u2019 was first mentioned.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">The concept gained recognition among policy makers when the United Nations published the&nbsp;\u201c<a href=\"http:\/\/www.millenniumassessment.org\/en\/Index-2.html\">Millennium Ecosystem Assessment<\/a>\u201d (MA)&nbsp;in 2005.&nbsp; The work on the MA started in 2001 involving over 1300 international experts. The study provided a comprehensive, global assessment of human impacts on ecosystems and their services, analysis of ecosystems condition and trend as well as possible solutions for restoration, maintenances and sustainable use. The key finding of the MA was that currently 60 per cent of the ecosystem services evaluated are being degraded or used unsustainably.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">The following international initiative \u2013&nbsp;<a href=\"http:\/\/www.teebweb.org\/\">The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity \u2013 TEEB<\/a>, carried out in 2007 \u2013 2010, brought in the economic perspective of the ecosystem services in the policy debate. TEEB aimed to highlight the economic value of biodiversity as well as the costs arising from biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation. TEEB was initiated by the European Commission and the German Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety, responding to proposal of environment ministers from the G8+5 countries meeting in Potsdam, Germany in March 2007. The study was performed by wide network of international and national organisations involving expertise in different fields of science, economics and policy.&nbsp; The findings of TEEB were published in several report including: TEEB Ecological and Economic Foundations; TEEB in national and International Policy making; TEEB in Local and Regional Policy; TEEB in Business and Enterprise; as well as the TEEB Synthesis Report, which summarise the main findings and recommendations. The international TEEB initiative has been followed up by several national TEEB studies in order to demonstrate the value of ecosystems for national policy makers.<span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Ecosystem services mapping and assessment have become high on the agenda of all EU Member States after the adoption of the&nbsp;<a href=\"http:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/LV\/TXT\/PDF\/?uri=CELEX:52011DC0244&amp;from=EN\">EU Biodiversity Strategy to 2020&nbsp;<\/a>in 2011. The strategy aims at halting the loss of biodiversity and the degradation of ecosystem services in the EU by 2020, and restoring them in so far as feasible. In line with its Action 5 \u201cImprove knowledge of ecosystems and their services in the EU\u201d, mapping and assessment of the ecosystems and their services in national territories would have to be carried out by 2014 and the economic values of ES have to be assessed by 2020. In the context of the Strategy \u2018mapping\u2019 stands for the spatial delineation of ecosystem as well as quantification of their condition and the service supply, while \u2018assessment\u2019 refers to the translation of this scientific evidence into information that is understandable for policy and decision making (Maes et al., 2016).<span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">To support implementation of the Action 5 of the EU Biodiversity Strategy 2020 European Commission has established a working group&nbsp; on \u2018Mapping and Assessment of Ecosystems and their Services\u2019 \u2013 MAES), which involves experts of the European Commission, the member states and the research community. It provides analytical framework (consisting of four different steps: 10 mapping of the ecosystems; 2) assessment of the ecosystem condition; 3) assessing of ecosystem services; and 4) and integrated assessment) as well as guidance for implementation of the Action 5 within EU and in the Member States. Several Member States have made already good progress in this field and performed their national MAES process, while many countries including the Baltic States are just at the initial stage for mapping of ecosystems and their services at national level. The&nbsp;<a href=\"http:\/\/biodiversity.europa.eu\/\">Biodiversity Information System for Europe \u2013 BISE<\/a>&nbsp; holds the information on completed as well as ongoing initiatives at EU and national level with regard to mapping and assessment of ecosystems and services they supply.<span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">At the same time several international co-operation platforms are established, linking researchers, research organisations and national authorities involved in the field of ecosystem service assessment. For example,&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.es-partnership.org\/\">Ecosystem Service Partnership \u2013 ESP<\/a>, launched in 2008 by the Gund Institute for Ecological Economics (University of Vermont, USA) is formed by institutional and individual members from all over the world. ESP aims to enhance communication and cooperation in the field of ecosystem services by organising international conferences, trainings, data and experience exchange and building a strong network of experts.&nbsp;<span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">The&nbsp;Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services \u2013 IPBES&nbsp;was established in 2012, aiming at strengthening the science-policy interface for biodiversity and ecosystem services as well as for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, long-term human well-being and sustainable development. It is supported by four United Nations entities: UNEP, UNESCO, FAO and UNDP and administered by UNEP. One of the main directions in the work programme of the IPBES is assessment of biodiversity and ecosystem services at regional and global level.<\/span><\/p>\n<div><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\"><\/span><\/div>\n<div id=\"Classification\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Classification of ecosystem services<\/span><\/div>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Categorisation of ecosystem service is a precondition for any attempt to measure, map or value them and to communicate the findings in a transparent way (Burkhard and Maes (Eds.), 2017). A number of different typologies and approaches to classify ecosystem services are developed using different criteria, e.g. spatial character and scale; service flow (see the cascade model described before); service beneficiary (private vs public); type of benefit (\u2018use\u2019 vs \u2018non-use\u2019), or whether the use of a service by one individual or group affects the use by others (\u2018rival\u2019 vs \u2018non-rival\u2019).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">One of the perspectives how to approach ecosystem services classification can be raising awareness in society about the different benefits what humans gain from the ecosystem. This approach was also in foundation of the&nbsp;MA classification system, which was proposing four main ecosystem categories:<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Provisioning services \u2013 food, materials and energy, which are directly used by people;<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Regulating services \u2013 those that cover the way ecosystems regulate other environmental media or processes;<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Cultural services \u2013 those related to the cultural or spiritual needs of people.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Supporting services \u2013 ecosystem processes and functions that underpin other three types of services.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Examples of services under each of the four categories and their relationship to different components of human well-being are presented in the Fig. 1.4.<a href=\"applewebdata:\/\/98C8D826-B615-45DF-832F-3D4DD5F9C5AA#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftn1\"><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_7449\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\"><a class=\"fancybox image\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cfwt.sua.ac.tz\/ecosystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/04\/chapter1_fig4.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-7449 size-full wp-image-499\" src=\"https:\/\/www.cfwt.sua.ac.tz\/ecosystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/04\/chapter1_fig4-791x544.jpg\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vivagrass.eu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/07\/chapter1_fig4-791x544.jpg 791w, &lt;a href=\" alt=\"\" width=\"550\" height=\"378\" wp-content=\"\" chapter1_fig4-768x528=\"\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Figure 1.4. The links between ecosystem services and human well-being as described by MA classification system (Source: MA, 2005).<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">The&nbsp;TEEB&nbsp;study applies similar classification approach as proposed by MA, distinguishing \u2018provisioning\u2019, \u2018regulating\u2019 and \u2018cultural\u2019 services, while the forth category is labelled \u2018habitat or supporting services\u2019, which cover habitats for species and maintenance of genetic diversity.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">In order to overcome a \u2018translation\u2019 problem between different classification systems, which are not always comparable due to different perspectives or definitions of the categories,&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/cices.eu\/\">the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services\u2013<\/a>CICES&nbsp;was proposed in 2009 and later revised in 2013.&nbsp;It was originally developed as part of the work on&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.cfwt.sua.ac.tz\/ecosystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/04\/SEEA_CF_Final_en.pdf\">The System of Environmental-Economic Accounting \u2013 SEEA<\/a>, led by the United Nations Statistical Division (UNSD), aiming to collect internationally comparable statistical data on environment in relation to economy and thus creating a basis for ecosystem service accounting system.<span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">The CICES is hierarchically organised \u2013 it applies the three major \u2018sections\u2019 of services \u2013 \u2018provisioning\u2019, \u2018regulating\u2019 and \u2018cultural\u2019, defined basically in the same way as in the MA and TEEB classification, and then splits them further into \u2018divisions\u2019, \u2018groups\u2019 and \u2018classes\u2019 (Fig. 1.5). The hierarchical structure allows users to go down to the most appropriate level of detail required by their application as well as combine results when making comparisons or more generalised reports. If refereeing to the \u2018cascade model\u2019 described above, this classification system is targeted to the \u2018final services\u2019 \u2013 the \u2018end-products\u2019 of nature from which goods and benefits are derived.&nbsp; CICES does not include the supporting services \u2013 ecosystem structure, processes and functions, from which society is not benefiting directly, but throw the flow of final service. Though, it does not mean the supporting services are less important, but such narrowing down of the assessment scope is essential to avoid the double accounting when valuing the ecosystem services \u2013 i.e. assessing the importance of a nature component more than once because it is embedded in, or underpins, a range of other service outputs (Burkhard and Maes (Eds.), 2017).<a href=\"applewebdata:\/\/5AD0F4D0-AC38-4489-A67E-A39C575456B9#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftn1\"><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_7450\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\"><a class=\"fancybox image\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cfwt.sua.ac.tz\/ecosystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/04\/chapter1_fig5.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-7450 size-full wp-image-502\" src=\"https:\/\/www.cfwt.sua.ac.tz\/ecosystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/04\/chapter1_fig5-791x436.jpg\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vivagrass.eu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/07\/chapter1_fig5-791x436.jpg 791w, &lt;a href=\" alt=\"\" width=\"550\" height=\"303\" wp-content=\"\" chapter1_fig5-768x423=\"\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Figure 1.5. The hierarchical structure of CICES, illustrated with reference to a provisioning service (cultivated plants- cereals) (Source: MA, 2005).<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">The CICES is applied in various international project as well as ecosystem service assessment at national scale. It also forms a part of the ecosystem service assessment and mapping framework, develop by the MAES working group to support implementation of the EU Biodiversity Strategy 2020. CICES version 4.3 was applied until 2017, however a need for its further improvement has been realised (e.g. better representation of abiotic ecosystem services as well as integration with typologies for underlying ecosystem functions). Therefore after extensive period of consultation and peer review&nbsp;the new \u2018CICES version 5.1\u2019 was developed and now available at the CICES website, including also a guidance document. The new version is consistent with but extends CICES&nbsp; version 4.3.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Another, more complex approach is applied by IPBES, which provides an overarching typology of values related to nature and quality of life, intended to guide the assessment of values within&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.cfwt.sua.ac.tz\/ecosystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/04\/IPBES-4-INF-13_EN.pdf\">IPBES activities<\/a>. This typology presents a renege of values, arising from very different worldviews and is organized around the three broad categories:<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">intrinsic value of nature\u2013 including individual organisms, biophysical assemblages, biophysical processes and biodiversity;<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">nature\u00b4s benefits to people, which includes:<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">biosphere\u2018s ability to enable human endeavour (i.e. embodied energy; human appropriation of net primary production; total material consumption; life cycles, carbon and water footprint; land cover flows etc.);<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">nature\u2018s ability to supply benefits (i.e. habitats for fisheries, contribution of soil biodiversity to sustenance of long-term yields, biodiversity for future options);<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">nature\u2018s gifts, goods and services (i.e. regulating services: climate regulation, regulation of water flows, pollination, biological control etc.; provisioning services: food, medicine, timber, water, bioenergy etc.; cultural services: ecotourism, education, psychological benefits etc.);<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">good quality of life\u2013 including security and livelihoods; sustainability and resilience; diversity and options; living well and in harmony with nature and Mother Earth; health and well-being; education and knowledge; identity and autonomy; good social relations; art and cultural heritage; spirituality and religions; governance and justice.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Nevertheless, taking into account the complexity of the issue, one comprehensive classification system, suitable for all assessment purposes, most probably would not be possible. The choice of the appropriate classification approach depends on the objective of the study or the decision making context. However, the comparability and transparency of the results of the various studies and approaches still remains a challenge.<span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"slides\"><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\"><\/span><\/div>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.cfwt.sua.ac.tz\/ecosystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/04\/lecture_1_ecosystem-service-concept-and-classification-systems-compressed.pdf\"><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.cfwt.sua.ac.tz\/ecosystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/04\/lecture_1_ecosystem-service-concept-and-classification-systems-compressed.pdf\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-9199 alignnone size-full wp-image-505\" src=\"https:\/\/www.cfwt.sua.ac.tz\/ecosystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/04\/1-791x440.png\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vivagrass.eu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/11\/1-791x440.png 791w, &lt;a href=\" alt=\"\" width=\"352\" height=\"196\" wp-content=\"\" 1-768x427=\"\" \/><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/www.cfwt.sua.ac.tz\/ecosystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/04\/1-1024x569.png\"><br \/><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<h2><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Suggested reading:<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Burkhard, B., Kroll, F., Nedkov, S., M\u00fcller, F., 2012a. Mapping supply, demand and budgets of ecosystem services. Ecological Indicators 21: 17-29.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Burkhard, B., de Groot, R., Costanza, R., Seppelt, R., J\u00f8rgensen, S.E., Potschin, M., 2012b. Solutions for sustaining natural capital and ecosystem services. Ecological Indicators 21: 1\u20136.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Burkhard, B,, Maes, J. (Eds.) 2017. Mapping Ecosystem Services. Pensoft Publishers, Sofia, 374 pp. Available at:&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href=\"http:\/\/ab.pensoft.net\/articles.php?id=12837\">http:\/\/ab.pensoft.net\/articles.php?id=12837<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Costanza, R., D\u2019Arge, R., de Groot, R.S., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon, B., Limburg, K., Naeem, S., O\u2019Neill, R.V., Paruelo, J., Raskin, R.G., Sutton, P., van den Belt, M., 1997. The value of world\u2019s ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387: 253- 260.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Costanza, R., de Groot, R., Sutton, P., van der Ploeg, S., Anderson, S.J., Kubiszewski, I., Farber, S., Turner, R.K., 2014. Changes in the global value of ecosystem services. Global Environmental Change 26: 152\u2013158.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">De Bello, F., Lavorel, S., D\u00edaz, S., Harrington, R., Bardgett, R., Berg, M., Cipriotti, P., Cornelissen, H., Feld, C. , Hering, C., Martins da Silva, P., Potts, S., Sandin, L., Sousa, J. S., Storkey, J., Wardle, D., 2008. Functional traits underlie the delivery of ecosystem services across different trophic levels. Deliverable of the Rubicode Project (download: www.rubicode.net\/rubicode\/outputs.html ).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">De Groot, R.S., 1992. Functions of Nature: Evaluation of Nature in Environmental Planning, Management and Decision Making. Wolters-Noordhoff BV, Groningen.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Daily, G.C., 1997. Nature\u2018s Services Societal Dependence On Natural Ecosystems. Island Press, Washington D C.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">European Union, 2014. Mapping and Assessment of Ecosystems and their Services. Indicators for ecosystem assessments under Action 5 of the EU Biodiversity Strategy to 2020. 2nd Report \u2013 Final, February 2014. pp.80<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Fagan, K. C., Pywell, R. F., Bullock, J. M., Marrs, R. H., 2008. Do restored calcareous grasslands on former arable fields resemble ancient targets? The effect of time, methods and environment on outcomes . Journal of Applied Ecology, 45 (4), 1293 \u2013303.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Fisher, B., Turner, R.K., Morling, P., 2009. Defining and classifying ecosystem services for decision making. Ecological Economics 68 (3): 643\u2013653.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Haines-Young, R., Potschin M., 2010. The links between biodiversity, ecosystem services and human well-being. In: Raffaelli, D.G &amp; C.L.J. Frid (eds.): Ecosystem Ecology: A New Synthesis. Cambridge University Press, British Ecological Society, pp. 110-139.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Haines-Young, R., Potschin, M., 2013. Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES): Consultation on Version 4, August-December 2012. EEA Framework Contract No EEA\/IEA\/09\/003. Pieejams: <a href=\"http:\/\/cices.eu\/\">http:\/\/cices.eu\/<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Maes, J., Teller, A., Erhard, M., 2014. Mapping and Assessment of Ecosystems and their Services. Indicators for ecosystem assessments under action 5 of the EU biodiversity strategy to 2020. Publications office of the European Union, Luxembourg.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Maes, J., Liquete, C., Teller, A., Erhard, M., Paracchini, M.L., Barredo, J.I., Grizzetti, B., Cardoso, A., Somma, F., Petersen, J., 2016. An indicator framework for assessing ecosystem services in support of the EU Biodiversity Strategy to 2020. Ecosystem&nbsp;Services, 17: 14\u201323.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005. Ecosystems and Human Wellbeing: Synthesis. Island Press.Washington, DC, p. 137.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Potschin, M. Haines-Young, R., 2016. Defining and measuring ecosystem services. In: Potschin, M., Haines-Young, R., Fish, R. and Turner, R.K. (eds) Routledge Handbook of Ecosystem Services. Routledge, London and \u00e4 New York, pp 25-44.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">Rodr\u00edguez, J.P., Jr. Beard, T.D., Bennett, E.M., Cumming, G.S., Cork, S., Agard, J., Dobson, A. P., Peterson, G.D., 2006. Trade-offs across space, time, and ecosystem services. Ecology and Society 11(1): 28. [online] URL:&nbsp;<a href=\"http:\/\/www.ecologyandsociety.org\/vol11\/iss1\/art28\/\">http:\/\/www.ecologyandsociety.org\/vol11\/iss1\/art28\/<\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">TEEB, 2009. TEEB \u2013 The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity for National and International Policy Makers \u2013 Summary: Responnding to the value of nature, p. 40.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\">TEEB, 2010. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity: Mainstreaming the Economics of Nature: A synthesis of the approach, conclusions and recommendations of TEEB. p. 36.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<div><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\"><\/span><\/div>\n<div><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\"><\/span><\/div>\n<div><span style=\"font-size: 14pt;\"><\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"_0XiCYK_NJcjGgQaIoqjIDA26\" class=\"mWyH1d FXMOpb\" style=\"text-align: justify;\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\" aria-controls=\"_0XiCYK_NJcjGgQaIoqjIDA25\" aria-expanded=\"true\"><\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>The term &#8220;ecosystem&#8221; was first used in 1935 in a publication by British ecologist Arthur Tansley. Tansley devised the concept to draw attention to the importance of transfers of materials between organisms and their environment. Tansley later defined the spatial extent of&nbsp;ecosystems&nbsp;using the term &#8220;ecotope&#8221; What is the concept of ecosystem? In biology, an&nbsp;ecosystem&nbsp;is a [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":491,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[4],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-507","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-news"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.cfwt.sua.ac.tz\/ecosystems\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/507","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.cfwt.sua.ac.tz\/ecosystems\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.cfwt.sua.ac.tz\/ecosystems\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.cfwt.sua.ac.tz\/ecosystems\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.cfwt.sua.ac.tz\/ecosystems\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=507"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.cfwt.sua.ac.tz\/ecosystems\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/507\/revisions"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.cfwt.sua.ac.tz\/ecosystems\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/491"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.cfwt.sua.ac.tz\/ecosystems\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=507"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.cfwt.sua.ac.tz\/ecosystems\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=507"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.cfwt.sua.ac.tz\/ecosystems\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=507"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}